cougars - biology & behavoir
Like almost all cats, the cougar is a solitary animal. Only mothers and kittens live in groups, with adults meeting only to mate. It is
secretive and crepuscular, being most active around dawn and dusk.
Estimates of territory sizes vary greatly. Canadian Geographic reports large male territories of 150 to 1000 square kilometers (58 to 386
sq mi) with female ranges half the size. Other research suggests a much smaller lower limit of 25 km2 (10 sq mi) but an even
greater upper limit of 1300 km2 (500 sq mi) for males. In the United States, very large ranges have been reported in Texas and
the Black Hills of the northern Great Plains, in excess of 775 km2 (300 sq mi). Male ranges may include or overlap with those of
females but, at least where studied, not with those of other males, which serves to reduce conflict between cougars. Ranges of females may
overlap slightly with each other. Scrape marks, urine, and feces are used to mark territory and attract mates. Males may scrape together a
small pile of leaves and grasses and then urinate on it as a way of marking territory.
Home range sizes and overall cougar abundance depend on terrain, vegetation, and prey abundance. One female adjacent to the San Andres
Mountains, for instance, was found with a large range of 215 km2 (83 sq mi), necessitated by poor prey abundance. Research has
shown cougar abundances from 0.5 animals to as much as 7 (in one study in South America) per 100 km2 (38 sq mi).
Because males disperse further than females and compete more directly for mates and territory, they are most likely to be involved in conflict.
Where a sub-adult fails to leave his maternal range, for example, he may be killed by his father. When males encounter each other, they hiss
and spit, and may engage in violent conflict if neither backs down. Hunting or relocation of the cougar may increase aggressive encounters
by disrupting territories and bringing young, transient animals into conflict with established individuals.
hunting & diet
A successful generalist predator, the cougar will eat any animal it can catch, from insects to large ungulates. Like all cats, it is
an obligate carnivore, feeding only on meat. The Mean weight of vertebrate prey (MWVP) was positively correlated (r=0.875) with puma body
weight and inversely correlated (r=-0.836) with food niche breadth in all America. In general, MWVP was lower in areas closer to the Equator.
Its most important prey species are various deer species, particularly in North America; mule deer, white-tailed deer, elk, and even the
large moose are taken by the cat. Other species such as Bighorn Sheep, wild horses of Arizona, domestic horses, and domestic livestock such
as cattle and sheep are also primary food bases in many areas. A survey of North America research found 68% of prey items were ungulates,
especially deer. Only the Florida Panther showed variation, often preferring feral hogs and armadillos. Investigation in Yellowstone National
Park showed that elk, followed by mule deer, were the cougar's primary targets; the prey base is shared with the park's gray wolves, with
whom the cougar competes for resources. Another study on winter kills (November-April) in Alberta showed that ungulates accounted for greater
than 99% of the cougar diet. Learned, individual prey recognition was observed, as some cougars rarely killed bighorn sheep, while others
relied heavily on the species.
In the Central and South American cougar range, the ratio of deer in the diet declines. Small to mid-size mammals are preferred, including
large rodents such as the capybara. Ungulates accounted for only 35% of prey items in one survey, approximately half that of North America.
Competition with the larger jaguar has been suggested for the decline in the size of prey items. Other listed prey species of the cougar include
mice, porcupine, and hares. Birds and small reptiles are sometimes preyed upon in the south, but this is rarely recorded in North America.
Though capable of sprinting, the cougar is typically an ambush predator. It stalks through brush and trees, across ledges, or other covered
spots, before delivering a powerful leap onto the back of its prey and a suffocating neck bite. The cougar is capable of breaking the neck of some of its
smaller prey with a strong bite and momentum bearing the animal to the ground. It has a flexible spine which aids its killing technique.
Kills are generally estimated at around one large ungulate every two weeks. The period shrinks for females raising young, and may be as short
as one kill every three days when cubs are nearly mature at around 15 months. The cat drags a kill to a preferred spot, covers it with brush,
and returns to feed over a period of days. It is generally reported that the cougar is a non-scavenger and will rarely consume prey it has not
killed; but deer carcasses left exposed for study were scavenged by cougars in California, suggesting more opportunistic behavior.
reproduction
Females reach sexual maturity between one-and-a-half and three years of age. They typically average one litter every two to three years
throughout their reproductive life; the period can be as short as one year. Females are in estrus for approximately 8 days of a 23-day cycle;
the gestation period is approximately 91 days. Females are sometimes reported as monogamous, but this is uncertain and polygyny may be more
common. Copulation is brief but frequent.
Only females are involved in parenting. Female cougars are fiercely protective of their kittens, and have been seen to successfully fight off
animals as large as grizzly bears in their defense. Litter size is between one and six kittens, typically two or three. Caves and other alcoves
that offer protection are used as litter dens. Born blind, kittens are completely dependent on their mother at first, and begin to be weaned
at around three months of age. As they grow, they begin to go out on forays with their mother, first visiting kill sites, and after six months
beginning to hunt small prey on their own. Kitten survival rates are just over one per litter.
Sub-adults leave their mother to attempt to establish their own territory at around two years of age and sometimes earlier; males tend to leave
sooner. One study has shown high morbidity amongst cougars that travel farthest from the maternal range, often due to conflicts with other cougars
("intraspecific" conflict). Research in New Mexico has shown that "males dispersed significantly farther than females, were more likely to traverse
large expanses of non-cougar habitat, and were probably most responsible for nuclear gene flow between habitat patches."
Life expectancy in the wild is reported at between 8 to 13 years, and probably averages 8 to 10; a female of at least 18 years was reported
killed by hunters on Vancouver Island. Cougars may live as long as 20 years in captivity. Causes of death in the wild include disability and
disease, competition with other cougars, starvation, accidents, and, where allowed, human hunting. Feline immunodeficiency virus, an endemic
AIDS-like disease in cats, is well-adapted to the cougar.
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